KNMI

P.O. Box 201, 3730 AE De Bilt, The Netherlands

Paper Presented at The 2002 Eumetsat Meteorological Satellite Conference, Dublin, Ireland 2-6 september 2002.

In the last decade several trends on training and learning in organisations employing professionals e.g. NWS’s employing forecasters, can be discerned. They include the increasing role of the computer and CAL, the use of other educational solutions than just giving 'regular training’, a shift of focus from teaching to learning, the (re)claiming of the workplace as a legitimate environment for training and learning and finally an increasing appreciation of non-formal learning. These trends will be discussed and related to the training and learning events on the use of satellite imagery that are organised at KNMI.

At KNMI the SatRep approach is in common use: forecasters at the bench, using their knowledge of conceptual models (CM’s), combine METEOSAT-imagery, observations and ECMWF or HiRLAM model-output fields to optimise their understanding of the actual state of the atmosphere and to identify regions where rapid developments in weather systems might occur. A useful resource, containing a large number of descriptions of CM’s, is the ‘SatRep Manual’, available locally and on the internet in html-format. Many forecasters have easily access to this manual using pc’s or workstations in their offices, at home as well as at the forecasting desk. Therefore the manual, also containing short descriptions of each CM, has taken the role of an electronic job-aid, not only supporting the forecaster’s work itself but also fostering work-based learning.

The effectiveness of the SatRep Manual as an electronic job-aid and as a tool fostering work based learning, was revealed by research originally set up to make clear what kind of actions can be taken to stimulate individual and collective work based learning of operational forecasters. The results showed these forecasters all learned from SatRep, especially in case they were involved in producing 12 UT satellite reports and SatRep-graphics as a part of their shift duties. Several forecasters explained in detail how the use of the manual while on duty had contributed to their learning.

It was concluded that delivering training on satellite meteorology or other meteorological topics can only be effective if the subject matter is perceived to be relevant for the daily work and can be applied immediately on a regular basis. Forecasters gain far more from producing SatReps than from any training event on satellite meteorology, CM’s or SatRep; therefore work based learning can be fostered by rotating the task of producing a SatRep amongst the forecasters on duty. Another conclusion that can be drawn is that ‘training’ on how to use the new products of meteorological satellites at the forecasting desk, e.g. MSG satellite imagery in many different channels, SAF-products etc., should only be offered to the forecasters ‘just-in time’, i.e. when they have already access to these products and when the role of these products in the forecasting process is clear. Adding ‘short versions’ to the information in CAL, like CAL that will be developed to introduce new MSG products to forecasters, will make it’s possible use as an electronic job aid and as a tool fostering work based learning more likely.

In the last decade the availability of METEOSAT-images and other satellite imagery to forecasters increased significantly. Moreover the images nowadays can be more easily accessed, manipulated and overlaid with meteorological observations or fields of model output. The training of forecasters in using, interpreting and manipulating satellite images or combining it with data from other sources, also contributed to the successful application of this imagery and raised the level of benefit from its use.

Besides, in that same period of time training improved as well. Moreover new ideas on training and learning in organisations evolved. Furthermore new insights arose on the role of professionals in organisations and on their learning.

In this paper first some trends in training and learning in organisations with professionals, like National Meteorological Services (NMS’s) employing forecasters, are described. We then discuss training and learning on satellite meteorology at KNMI and relate what is done to the trends described. One of the learning resources that are used is the so-called ‘SatRep Manual’ (ZAMG et al. 2002). It is web based, contains the information to produce or interpret and use Satellite Reports as made by ZAMG, KNMI and FMI and can easily be accessed from the forecaster’s desk and any other location with access to the internet. Research reveals that the SatRep Manual is very appropriate for use as a so called ‘job aid’ and is a powerful tool in fostering work based learning of professional forecasters.

In this section we discuss a couple of trends in training and learning in organisations that can be discerned in the last decade. It is assumed that these trends are also relevant to the way training and learning on satellite meteorology and other subject matter is fostered in NMS’s and other organisations using satellite imagery.

The rise of information and communication technology (ICT), that contributed for instance to the growth of the area of satellite meteorology, also made it possible to integrate computer based training or Computer Aided Learning (CAL) in training programs and to strengthen the role of the computer and ICT as a facilitator of learning. CAL modules on satellite meteorology have been developed from the early nineties; first on diskette, laser disk and later on CD-ROM. More recent modules, like EuroMET’s ‘Satellite Meteorology’ , ZAMG’s ‘Diagnosis of satellite images with help of conceptual models’ and COMET’s ‘ Polar Satellite Products for the Operational Meteorologist’ nowadays usually are web based. However, the rise of information technology is a first but by far not the only development that occurred in the last decade.

Whether or not ICT is used for training in an organisation, for managers and other employees learning often equals course-based training (Poell & Van der Krogt 2001); this also seems to be true for many NMS’s. However the past decades showed several new insights on 'learning beyond the classroom' that give a different perspective on corporate learning. One of these new insights is the increasing awareness of other solutions than just giving 'regular' training when trying to solve problems in organisations like, in the case of a forecasting office, lack of knowledge of new products and new tools, lack of skill how to handle them or implementing new approaches to work to be applied in the forecasting process. An overview of methods delivering education and training in meteorology and operational hydrology other than 'regular training' was given by Riddaway (2000) amongst others in the context of continuing education and training in meteorology; non-traditional ‘training’ methods mentioned include: guided reading, project work, case study or assignment, problem solving group, learning through the job etc.

For e-learning following specific courses is also only just one of the popular methods, that among others include more open, self directed activities like surfing the web, reading information downloaded from the web and surfing an intranet (Honey 2000). Clearly, multiple ways of organising learning have come into existence over the last decade, although formal training still remains a well-known and well-used practice (Poell 1998).

As a third trend the focus of learning in organisations shifted more and more from ‘education and training’ to ‘learning’ (Honey 1996, Kwakman 1999, Simons et al. 2000). In the early nineties there were disputes on whether to use the wording ‘computer based training’ or ‘computer aided learning’; when on the other hand recently coining the word e-learning, the option e-training was not even considered! (Honey 2000). Research on learning is not restricted to the learning of individuals; more and more learning in a group of peers is considered to be relevant for learning that takes place in organisations and institutions.

The shift in focus, from courses, teaching and instructors towards the learner and his or her learning process, can be seen as a consequence of a shift in educational paradigm from behaviourism to constructivism, as discussed by the Coimbra-Group (1998) amongst others; it moved the locus of control of the learning process, and with it the focus of education, from the teacher to the learner. Learning is considered to be the result of an entwined interaction between what goes on in the head and what goes on in the environment. For employees in organisations this environment is the workplace; for a forecaster of a NMS, needing more knowledge and skills on the interpretation and use of satellite meteorology, this environment is the forecasting desk. This brings us to the next trend.

Another training reform that has taken place is the (re)claiming of the workplace itself, the natural place for learning (Raelin 1999), as a legitimate environment for training and learning (Harris et al. 1998). Training on-the-job, since long a recurring part of the training of observers and forecasters, received new impulses by 'structured on-the-job training' (Jacobs & Jones 1995) and was implemented at for instance KNMI (Kuppens et al. 1995). Following the trends 'shift from training to learning' (§ 2.3) and 'workplace as an environment for training and learning' (this §) an increasing awareness arose of the possibilities of learning (not ‘training’) at the workplace. This learning on-the-job can take place in the context of initial training, for new forecasters and observers or forecasters entering a new specialisation, but can also be considered to be an instrument to foster continuous education. In line with these developments, after CAL-modules had become available, it has been suggested, for instance by members of EuroMET, that short CAL modules could be delivered at the forecaster's desk. Forecasters however experience increasing workloads and claim to have insufficient time during their duties to study CAL-modules.

Combining some trends discussed in this and earlier sections, revealing the increasing roles of ICT (§ 2.1), of other approaches than just 'conventional training with traditional training materials' (§ 2.2) and of the workplace as a natural place for learning (this §), the use of so called electronic job aids can be seen as a more promising example of an electronic tool fostering learning on-the-job; they can be considered to be one of the tools to facilitate individual workplace learning (Baskett 1994). Job aids will be discussed further in § 3.4; we will see in § 3.5 that the SatRep Manual (ZAMG et al. 2002), referred to earlier in § 1 and to be introduced in more detail in § 3.2, can be considered to be an example of a useful electronic job aid.

A fifth new insight was the awareness of the dominant role of informal learning, often defined as the opposite of the commonly known 'formal learning' that is taking place in situations like at schools, at many universities and at training institutions of NMS’s. Formal training however is thought to contribute for only about 10-20% to what workers need to know to perform their job. Formal educational programs are only small part of the overall learning and change process of professionals (Baskett & Marsick 1992). Informal learning is considered as a residual category to describe any type of learning which does not take place within, or follow from, a formally organised learning program, event or package executed in the presence of a designated teacher or trainer (Eraut 2000). Eraut though prefers the term non-formal learning over informal learning, because of its associations with so many other features of a situation, e.g. dress, discourse or diminution of social differences. Non-formal learning occurs in the course of participating in every day work activities; the learning process is not determined by the organisation or its training department. It takes place within the context of naturally occurring challenges (Marsick 2001) as part of an effort to achieve organisational results and is not done for the sole purpose of learning (Watkins & Marsick 1992). The learner in non-formal learning might be conscious of his learning but the learning can also be implicit and unintentional, where the learner lacks awareness of his learning. Workplace learning is difficult to distinguish from 'work' because it is embedded in the work experience rather than divorced or abstracted from the job.

Combining 'non-formal learning' (this §) and ' workplace as an environment for learning' (§ 2.4) leads to work-based learning: learning for work, at work and through work (Harris et al. 1998).

Work-based learning is as important for 'professionals' as for other employees of organisations; nevertheless in the literature the role of learning of professional during their work gets more attention. Forecasters who are 'meteorologist' according to the WMO classification (WMO 2002) can be considered to be at least para-professionals and the developments in other professional areas might be thought to be relevant to forecasters, too.

The trends in corporate learning mentioned above also have parallels in the views on professionals and the knowledge and expertise they posses and use. According to conventional understanding knowledge comes from books, journals, lectures, CAL-modules etc. and can be stored for future use or 'consumption'. Following this assumption the professional's work is assumed to consist of the application of theoretical knowledge, which has often been generated outside the workplace. This model however is primarily associated with formal knowledge only.

A more recent view is that professionals' learning occurs in interaction with the environment, e.g. everyday work problems, using a wide number of different sources. (Baskett & Marsick 1992); it is increasingly considered as learning in the workplace and in fact a type of non-formal learning. People emphasising the role of experience in forecasting in some way also underpin the importance of work-based learning; compare the research of Roebber & Bosart (1996) on the contributions of education and experience to forecast skill.

In the preceding section we discussed a couple of trends in training and learning in organisations that can be discerned in the last decade. We now go on to describe how training on satellite meteorology was or is organised at KNMI and how learning on that topic is fostered; in doing that we will relate what is done with the trends discussed before.

The concept of non-formal learning discussed above (§ 2.5) is not introduced as a substitute for structured training or education. Despite of off-the-job learning's lack of spatial and temporal proximity to the task and work environment and the attendant learning transfer problems, some jobs, like that of the forecaster, demand solid theoretical foundation that can only be gained through formal study. Consequently, from the time satellite imagery became available at the forecasting desk both ‘traditional’ training in satellite meteorology and ‘other training solutions’ have been used to make forecasters at KNMI familiar with satellite imagery and it's potential for use. At first training was delivered mainly in or as a part of regular courses, where the emphasis was on cloud types and weather systems as seen on satellite images in the VIS- and IR-channels. Training was given using locally produced lecture notes or commercially available publications.

Although the subject content described above is of course still important, since 1996 training in the use of satellite imagery has been related more and more to the SatRep approach. A forecaster using this approach relates features seen on recent satellite imagery to conceptual models of synoptic and mesoscale weather systems that apply best to the actual weather situation. Conceptual models are an important diagnostic tool, widely used by meteorological services, especially in the field of nowcasting, very short-range forecasting, training and professional development. They allow both an interpretation of satellite data and the subsequent use of this data in combination with other data sources as HiRLAM and ECMWF numerical model output and conventional observation data. Of all conceptual models the classical fronts and depressions according to the theories of the so-called Norwegian School are the best known and the most used by forecasters (Roberts & Young 2001). When using the SatRep approach a more extensive set of conceptual models than that of the Norwegian School is required. Many examples of additional conceptual models can be found in the literature, e.g. Bader (1995), Conway et al. (1996) and the so-called SatRep Manual (ZAMG et al. 2002).

The SatRep Manual was developed by ZAMG, KNMI and FMI, co-sponsored by EUMETSAT. The manual consists mainly of descriptions of a still increasing number of conceptual models of synoptic scale and mesoscale weather systems. In the manual each description of a conceptual model contains sections on cloud structure in satellite imagery, meteorological physical background, key parameters, weather events, and typical appearance in vertical cross section.

Fitting in the trend mentioned in § 2.1, ICT and CAL, the manual is written in html and available on the web. The SatRep Manual proved to be a valuable source of information to be used in connection with courses, case studies and on other occasions, for instance at the forecasting desk. Research, described below in section 4, reveals that the SatRep Manual is very appropriate for use as a so called ‘job aid’ (discussed in more detail in §3.4) and is a powerful tool in fostering work based learning of professional forecasters.

When training the skills required to perform the SatRep approach it is not sufficient to restrict to classical courses or leaving the students alone with a copy of the CD-ROM’s containing the SatRep Manual and the SatRep training course ‘Diagnosis of satellite images with help of conceptual models’. Following the trend mentioned in § 2.2 other ways of delivering this training have to be considered. In co-operation with ZAMG and EUMETSAT three-day-workshops were organised, aimed at the forecasters who were supposed to become in charge of preparing SatReps when on duty, following an approach more suited in cases where ‘trainees’ are supposed to acquire skills (Floor 1997):

1. a workshop leader presents some theory and background information on the SatRep approach and on the SatRep Manual to forecasters; he or she discusses some examples of conceptual models,
2. the workshop leader demonstrates the skills of interpreting satellite images, relating features on the imagery to conceptual models and presenting the results in a SatRep bulletin or graphic,
3. forecaster-student performs the task mentioned in 2. together with or coached by the workshop leader,
4. (after completion of the workshop) forecaster-student ‘standing alone’ produces SatReps when on duty 'on the job', if possible and/or necessary with the help of an experienced colleague.

The workshop format has been chosen on many other occasions when introducing the SatRep approach to forecasters who are not familiar with it or to update knowledge and skills of the forecasters who are regularly involved in producing SatReps. However, due to increasing pressure to shorten the time dedicated to courses and workshops, the on-the-job part of the learning process becomes more and more important.

When on duty performing tasks that are new or complex or need a lot of things to be remembered, it is convenient to have access to the information required to perform that task. Under these circumstances job aids may bring relief. A job aid is a repository for information, processes or perspectives that is external to the individual and that supports work and activity by directing, guiding and enlightening performance (Rossett & Gautier-Downes 1991). Job aids can be accessed and used in real time during the actual performing of a task; they may be available as a hard copy or electronically retrievable. Well known examples of job aids in meteorology are the WMO clouds wall chart and the tables with plot symbols of weather and clouds for observation.

Characteristic for a job aid is that it is used at the workplace during work. In fact it often compensates for the limitations of memory. One hundred ww-code weather pictograms, some of them referring to weather phenomena that occur only a few times a year, are really too many to remember; the same is true for more than forty conceptual models, each with their own characteristics on satellite imagery, relevant model fields and cross sections of the atmosphere! Therefore one of the tasks where job aids can be very helpful is finding the right information needed to do one's job. Job aids usually cost less to prepare than training, can be customised and can be readily changed when procedures or information needed at the forecaster's desk change. Many forecasters create their own 'job aids', which they have developed from experience, to guide them through forecasting tasks.

As the SatRep Manual contains information on many conceptual models and also is available on the web, it can be used as an electronic job aid; it can be consulted from the forecaster's desk for use during shift work if web access is available, for instance while producing or ‘reading’ a satellite report (SatRep). Especially the later editions are suited to be used as electronic job aid, because they contain short versions of each conceptual model, suited for quick and easy reference during shift work. Short key information is an important characteristic of useful job aids and that is how they differ from just ordinary lecture notes. According to Harless (1986), referred to by Rothwell & Kazanas (1992): ‘Inside every fat course is a thin job aid crying to get out!’

The use of the SatRep Manual as described in this section is in line with the trends mentioned in earlier sections: it is an ICT/CAL (§ 2.1) tool suited for learning (§ 2.3) otherwise than conventional regular training (§ 2.2) that stimulates non-formal learning (§ 2.5) on the job (§ 2.4) of forecaster-professionals (§ 2.6).

In the preceding section we concluded that the use of the SatRep Manual as an electronic job aid fostering work based learning is completely in line with the trends on training and learning in organisations described in section 2. However the arguments used were rather theoretical and in the real world things might work out quite differently. Therefore in this section an investigation is described that shows that forecasters in fact are using the SatRep Manual as a job aid.

The research that revealed the usefulness and forecasters’ appreciation of the Manual of Synoptic Satellite Meteorology, as a job aid fostering work based learning, was initially not particularly restricted to the role of the SatRep Manual or more generally the function of electronically retrievable job aids. In fact it was set up to explore what factors generally help and hinder (non-formal) learning at work and to make clear what kind of actions should be taken to foster individual and collective work-based learning of operational forecasters.

Investigating non-formal learning is not straightforward, as people often are not aware they are learning, cannot discern between learning and work or find it easier to name the work process than the learning process. Eraut (2000) summarises the problems that are faced and the approaches that have been used. We follow an approach as used by Fox et al. (1989), Eraut (2000) and Doornbos & Krak (2001) amongst others for physicians, for nurses and midwives and for police officers respectively. In semi-structured interviews is asked about the nature of the job, challenging tasks that are part of it and the competencies/expertise required to perform an excellent job first. After that is discussed how the competencies and expertise were acquired and what sources and strategies of learning had been used. Finally it was asked what new competencies and expertise one wanted to acquire, how this could be done and what could hinder or help to achieve this. As the research was focused on non-formal, partly implicit learning at work and through work, following Kwakman (1999) and Doornbos & Krak (2001) the use of the word 'learning' was avoided as much as possible because of its connotations to learning in formal training programs.

For this investigation eight oral interviews were conducted with operational forecasters. To be sure that outcomes could be related to results of other investigations on the learning of professionals, only senior level or mid-level meteorologists according to the WMO classification (WMO 2002) were selected. The respondents usually spend 75% or more of their time in operational shifts in the central forecasting office of KNMI in De Bilt and carry out their shifts with two or three forecasters on duty at a time to include learning in peer groups. The oral interviews were followed by a written questionnaire a few weeks later suggesting 31 possibilities to learn at work and asking the forecasters to indicate which of these possibilities were used or had potential to learn.

The results gave a lot of insights on what was learned, how it was learned, what factors were helping or hindering. The interviewees gave spontaneous answers that were not suggested before by the interviewer; the answers in the written questionnaires contained judgements on the usefulness of the learning actions suggested in the form. The results (Floor 2001) will not fully be discussed here, however, as the focus is on the SatRep Manual as an electronic job aid and as a tool to foster work based learning now.

It became clear that all operational forecasters learned from working with the SatRep approach and from actually producing SatReps as a part of the shift duties. During the interviews several of them explained how the use of the manual had contributed to their learning; remarkably no one mentioned the use of other sources of information like manuals, books, work instructions or CAL modules.

One forecaster gave a very detailed description how he is using the SatRep Manual. When producing a 12 UTC SatRep he first links the features on satellite imagery with the relevant conceptual model. Next he compares this with the insights of his Austrian colleague who has made the 06 UTC SatRep that is available on the web (www.knmi.nl/satrep). Then, in case of disagreement, he uses the SatRep Manual to check cloud structure in satellite imagery, theoretical considerations, key parameters, weather events and typical appearance in vertical cross section in order to make up his mind before producing a final version of the SatRep. Therefore the 06 UT SatRep which the forecaster is building on also appeared to act as a very suitable tool for informal, work-based learning.

Learning input on other topics than SatRep, e.g. from workshops on ensemble prediction and probability forecasting, was not or only scarcely mentioned because it was considered to be less relevant for the work. This was remarkable, as all the forecasters recently had participated in such a workshop! Forecasters explained, when asked why they did mention SatRep only, that SatRep is new, is more integrated in their work, gave more satisfaction and can be applied more frequently.

Even more respondents (50%) indicated the use of the SatRep Manual during work when answering the written questionnaire. Again no use was mentioned of other educational resources outside regular formal courses.

In this paper some trends on teaching in learning in organisations were described. Special attention was drawn to non-formal, often implicit learning that occurs at work. Work based learning of operational forecasters at KNMI was investigated. It was found that The SatRep Manual, used as an electronic job aid, is contributing to their knowledge and skills. It is really a tool fostering work-based learning, because of it's relevance for the work actually done at the forecaster’s desk.

It can be concluded that when knowledge or theory is offered to the forecasters, the learning potential of the forecasting tasks performed is very important when deciding what content to offer. The production of a satellite report apparently is considered to be a more challenging task than issuing probability forecasts and one is more prone to gain expertise on it. This conclusion also implies that 'training' on how to use new products of meteorological satellites, e.g. MSG satellite imagery, SAF-products etc. at the forecasting desk, only should be offered to the forecasters ‘just-in-time’, i.e. when they have already access to these products and the role of these products in the forecasting process is clear.

It was mentioned that the addition of short descriptions of CM’s enlarged the usefulness of the SatRep Manual as an electronic job aid. Therefore, adding ‘short versions’ to the information in CAL, like CAL that will be developed to introduce new MSG products to forecasters, will make it’s possible use as an electronic job aid and as a tool fostering work based learning more likely.